Allen-Somerville, L. (1996, February). Capitalizing on diversity. The Science Teacher, 63 (2), 20-24.

InfoTrak Abstract: Science teachers should be aware that students have individual learning styles and preferences that are shaped by their ethnic and cultural backgrounds. For instance, a study has discovered that African Americans favor categorization and verbal risk styles while Asian Americans are more comfortable with spatial styles. In view of this learning-preference diversity, science teachers should devise ways to customize their teaching styles according to the preferred learning styles of their students. Guidelines are presented.

Abstract: This article, as stated in the InfoTrak abstract, is about learning styles and the effect that they may have on ethnically diverse students. The key element to this article is the guidelines presented. Allen-Somerville offers 8 rather broad guidelines: assume learning is possible, use hands-on activities, discuss learning styles with students, use a broad range of teaching strategies, learn about the history and culture of your students, discuss the multicultural history of the subject matter, create conducive learning environments, and provide diverse learning experiences.

Baker, E. L., & O’Neil, H. F., Jr. (1994). Technology assessment in education and training. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-1246-6.

Barker, P. (1993). Exploring Hypermedia. Great Britain: Biddles Ltd. ISBN 0-7494-0946-0.

Barron, A. E., & Orwig, G. W. (1995). Multimedia technologies for training: An introduction. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. ISBN 1-56308-262-4.

Abstract: This chapter offers support for the use of multimedia technology in training, and lists 10 benefits of this type of training. Benefits: Increased effectiveness, self-confidence, reduced training time, decreased cost, active learning, multisensory delivery, multilingual delivery, encourage exploration, motivation, and increased safety. Baron and Orwig also offer 9 guidelines for planning and development. Guidelines: Join professional organizations, subscribe to professional and technical periodicals, attend professional conferences, visit other training sites, invest in personnel with expertise, investigate commercial applications, avoid bells and whistles, build a prototype, balance high-tech with human training.

Baston, T. & Bass, R. (1996). Primacy of process: Teaching and learning in the computer age. Change 42-47.

Abstract: This article describes the history of teaching in the computer age from the early 80’s and the mainstream educational use of the word processor, to the 90’s with a similar mainstreaming of the World Wide Web. This is a fairly promotional article describing many computer applications now available to a broader audience than once was possible. Baston and Bates proclaim that the way that education works is no longer in text form but in "motion in the digital theater". They claim that "the current syllabus, based on the thinking of the print culture, inevitably has become the controlling emblem of teaching and learning". They present a chart listing the "Implications for six elements of epistemology of a shift toward more visible processes" describing changes in knowledge, teaching, collaboration, publication, thinking, and classrooms.

Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning, and distance education. USA and Canada, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11682-1(hbk) or 0-415-12799-8(pbk).

Computer-based learning and multimedia (chp. 9)

Beatty, T. R., & Fissel, J. C. (Oct, 1993). Teaching with a fiber-optic media network: How faculty adapt to new technology. THE, 82-84.

Library Abstract: The campus-wide fiber optic network Ball State University installed in 1989 has motivated teachers to consider cooperative-learning techniques and other innovative teaching methods that take advantage of the system's multimedia capabilities. The video information system (VIS) reaches 300 campus sites, which includes 40 buildings and over 2,500 students every day. Instructors access the VIS through a control panel in each site, which may operate up to six different media sources. Film strips, slides and 16mm film are still in use along with newer technology such as still video and compact disk-interactive (CD-I). One professor developed over 1,700 still-video images to enhance his lectures and help teach the subtleties of non-verbal communication in a large lecture hall. Working in pairs, the students performed experiments using the visual images.

Full Text: COPYRIGHT T.H.E. Journal 1993

Abstract: This article assesses four years of operation of a fiber-optic media network (Video Information System VIS) at Ball State University. The system’s original scope of 180 classrooms has risen over the 4 years to over 300 campus sites. VHS videotapes comprise 60% of the system’s use. The student and teacher response has been very positive with 75% of the students agreeing that the use of a visual component helped them better understand concepts, and nearly 90% of the students said it aided them with note taking. Faculty innovation rose as the faculty learned the system. One fashion retailing course actually had Tommy Hilfiger audioconferencing with the class while his designs were being shown on a classroom monitor.

Becker, D. A., & Dwyer, M. M. (1994). Using hypermedia to provide learner control. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 3(2), 155-172.

Author’s Abstract: It has been suggested that increased learner control is one of the benefits of implementing hypermedia in instructional settings. However, prior research has not determined whether students using hypermedia systems that provide a large amount of learner control actually perceive themselves to be in more control over the learning environment than do students using traditional text-style materials. This is a significant issue because provision of increased control does nothing to help the student unless the student perceives the increased control. This study found that students using hypertext to learn technical information experienced an increased sense of control. Further, it provides preliminary evidence of an increased level of intrinsic motivation to learn among hypertext users. Implications for further research regarding the effects of hypermedia on users' intrinsic motivation are discussed.

Abstract: The researchers hypothesize "the use of hypermedia provides an increased sense of learner control and higher intrinsic motivation to learn." Becker and Dwyer use 44 student subjects in two groups, one learning from a hypertext network and one from a reading packet. They used two sessions for each group in order to orient the hypertext group with the software. Pre- and post-tests were administered which "were adapted from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire". The results supported the hypothesis but curiously Becker and Dwyer did not extend their hypothesis to their logical conclusion which would be that an increased motivation to learn leads to more learning. The data (not coincidentally, I believe) did not support this hypotheses and actually the converse was true.

Beerman K.A. (1996). Computer-based multimedia: New directions in teaching and learning. Journal of Nutrition Education 28 (1) 15-18.

Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT Society for Nutrition Education 1996

Today's students have grown up in an electronic world. There is no doubt that the approaching generation will be even more technologically advanced than our current students. Computer technology offers us a powerful and versatile tool that can dramatically change teaching and learning. The result is an improved ability to present abstract or complex material with increased student comprehension and interest. Case studies and computer simulations help develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills by providing students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge. Studies indicate that instruction via computers results in higher test scores compared to conventional methods, as well as greater long-term retention. The time has come for faculty to consider how computer technology can best be used in their classes.

Berge, Z. L., & Collins, M.P. (Eds.). (1995). Computer mediated communication and the online classroom (Vols. 1-2). Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc. ISBN 1-881303-09-8.

"Considered together the chapters in this volume revolve around the questions: "What do we know about teaching and learning?" and "How can educator and learners use CMC productively as we move into the 21^st century."

Chapter 1 provides a foundation for understanding the terminology and processes of computer-mediated communication. Gerald M. Santoro defines CMC and gives examples of the various ways in which computers are used to mediate human communication, especially in support of instruction. This chapter describes how typical members of the academic community use computers for direct, human-to-human communication, informatics, and computer-aided instruction. Santoro describes the basic functions of electronic mail, group conferencing, and interactive messaging systems before going on to discuss the purposes of online databases and campus-wide information systems. This chapter provides the basic concepts and context necessary for understanding the more specific and in-depth information provided in later chapters.

In Chapter 2, Jill H. Ellsworth addresses the second half of our title, "And the Online Classroom." In an effort to expand access, meet learner needs, and overcome problems encountered by nontraditional, commuter students, she instituted CMC in two courses requiring intensive interaction between student and faculty. For many students, CMC provided a new avenue for learning--one not reliant on time, location, or instructor-that allowed them to access information in an exploratory fashion. Further, CMC gave many students a chance to use electronic mail, computer conferencing, and synchronous communication with their peers to independently build their own useful knowledge structures.

CMC's flexibility and variety allows instructors to meet numerous learning and personal needs, especially when working with individuals with special needs and those who are less mobile or shy. However, many CMC applications require that students first take the time to learn considerable information and skills and be provided with access to computers and software that can be costly.

Ellsworth determined that CMC enhances both the teaching and the learning process. In considering the major benefits of CMC, her students said that they appreciated the timely feedback, the accessibility of faculty and resources outside of class hours, and their ability to get more out of the class.

James N. Shimabukuro, in Chapter 3, examines the potential impact of computer-mediated communication on writing instruction by developing a future scenario in a college setting. However, the scenario is equally relevant to other instructional levels. He next describes the growth of computer networks, using a generational model:

First: Local Area Network (LAN)

Second: Wide Area Network (WAN)

Third: Remote Access Network (RAN); and

Fourth: Global Access Network (GAN).

In the fourth generation model, the traditional college campus is no longer the focal point of instructional delivery; instructors and students are electronically linked around the world, and they seldom, if ever, meet face-to-face. Faculty offices do not have to be grouped at a single geographical location; instructors are able to work out of home offices, often far removed from a physical campus. A campus may house conferencing and administrative facilities, but traditional classrooms have all but disappeared-the future campus is primarily the geographical base for, the mainframe or whatever system functions as the network server. Shimabukuro has based his future scenario on the ways the university community might use CMC in a fourth generation network, and he closes his chapter with a discussion of the consequences and implications of this model for classroom teachers today.

Joseph Kinner's and Norman Coombs's chapter (Chapter 4) outlines the problems and opportunities of adaptive computing and provides vignettes of persons who have made significant use of adaptive computing in school. The chapter gives an in-depth report on a pilot project that enabled two courses using the Internet to unite classes of hearing and deaf students from Gallaudet University and the Rochester Institute of Technology into a single, virtual classroom. Two-thirds of the participants were hearing impaired, and one was blind. The success of this project demonstrates ways in which CMC can mainstream disabled learners into the educational system.

Kinner and Coombs take the position that the personal computer equipped with adaptive technology is one of the most empowering and liberating tools in the lives of persons with physical disabilities. The computer, along with the CMC it enables, opens education and the entire information world to a new population. Further, it has been demonstrated that CMC can enable this population in a mainstream environment.

In Chapter 5, Ann Pemberton and Robert Zenhausern explore how CMC can be used as a rehabilitation technique by providing bask computer literacy, motivational reading, writing, and thinking activities, and an introduction to the world to adolescents with educational disabilities. The authors summarize actual classroom situations that have arisen over the past two years as a result of their CMC activities, and at the same time show how special education teachers can use CMC to address their own professional needs. They draw their examples from the archives of a series of listserv discussion groups located at St. John's University in New York City and transcripts of the online experiences of learning disabled adolescents in a high school in rural Virginia. The chapter concludes with tips for teachers and a list of available online resources specific to the needs of those involved in special education.

Linda S. Fowler and Daniel D. Wheeler (Chapter 6) conducted a nationwide survey of 25 Kindergarten-Grade 12 teachers actively using computer-mediated communications in their classrooms and found that these teachers were pleased with their successes. The teachers reported that their use of CMC contributed to the development of a cooperative learning environment in which their students worked not only with each other, but also with peers around the world. They also noted an increase in cultural understanding and an improvement in writing skills. These teachers, all enthusiastic pioneers of CMC, overcame considerable difficulties to achieve their successes, but noted that better institutional support will be necessary if CMC is to become widespread in K-12 classrooms.

In Chapter 8, Katy Silberger examines changes in the traditional role and structure of libraries in higher education as they face the technological opportunities and pressures stemming from increased use of new electronic information formats, such as electronic journals and monographs, and electronic publishing networks. In forecasting the role of the library of the future, Silberger notes that the proliferation of electronic text will add to, rather than replace, paper-based library holdings. Not all libraries will choose to archive electronic text, but instead will provide local, national, and international access and retrieval services for their patrons. Silberger believes libraries will remain the scholarly information centers of universities, but increasingly, their added role will be to facilitate research and communication within the global scholarly community.

George D. Baldwin's chapter (Chapter 9) opens with a discussion of the implicit conflict between Indian cultural values and beliefs and the English language used in most CMC. Indian students can adapt to the features of CMC that promote cooperative, active learning; however, the text-based nature of the medium is problematic, especially when students are required to participate before they have ascertained the relative ranking of other correspondents. But as long as students are allowed to watch, "listen in," and reflect prior to active participation, CMC can help them learn some of the skills necessary for success in the information society. Baldwin also reports on a number of Native American educational computer conferencing networks, providing access information and addresses.

John J. Saraille and Thomas A. Gentry (Chapter 10) present the Fractal Factory, a virtual laboratory for teaching and research that is evolving from a combination of computer networks, new analytical programs, digital image compression technology, and the expanding resources of the Internet. The model and core concept for the Fractal Factory come from the process of computing fractal dimensions, a process that has applications in many subject areas and provides a new cognitive linkage between the quantitative methods used in teaching science and real-world problems. The authors discuss the current status of the Fractal Factory in the hope that their example will help others gain access to collaboration in this CMC venue. They suggest that the study of fractals provides both a rich source of new insight on the natural world and a subject matter with broad applications for CMC-based instruction.

Raleigh C. Muns, in Chapter 11, suggests a continuity in scholarly communication from the Socratic dialog to the computer-mediated scholarly discussion groups typically found on the Internet. He describes and contrasts the Internet's e-mail-based communication channels, listserv discussion groups, and Usenet newsgroups, and offers two possible ways to evaluate online discussions: forum analysis and a methodology he developed for his own electronic publication, the List Review Service. Muns briefly reviews five existing online discussion forums that he has found useful for both learning about online communication and uncovering Internet resources: PACS-L, Comserve, IPCT-L, VPIEJ-L, and LIBREF-L.

Michael Szabo's chapter (Chapter 12) has two purposes: to provide a brief historical overview of PLATO and to examine several of PLATO's features that support and promote a wide range of communication for student learning. In developing one of the most powerful systems for the computer-assisted instruction form of computer-human interaction, PLATOs creators pioneered new methods of conferencing, messaging, and database management. Examining these new methods should give educators ideas about how they might develop their own communications applications using evolving network systems such as PLATO.

In the 13th and final chapter, Fay Sudweeks, Mauri Collins and John December introduce and explain several other important resources for those interested in computer networks, networking, and the Internet. They describe the basic navigation tools (FrP and Telnet) and give instructions on how to use these tools to search for, discover, and retrieve needed information. The authors compare and contrast various interactive conferencing systems, with an eye toward their potential uses in education. December's CMC list offers readers a compact but comprehensive guide to a broad range of resources concerning computer-mediated communication available in several media.

In Chapter 1, Robert Nalley describes the instructional design process that led to the incorporation of CMC into two existing courses and offers practical guidance in instructional design to those who would consider CMC as an instructional tool.

Michael Day's and Trent Batson's chapter (Chapter 2) demonstrates how a particular application of CMC, Electronic Networks For Interaction (ENFI), is being used to change the social dynamics of the writing classroom. ENFI is not a specific software package but rather an electronic implementation of the concept that writing can actually be taught in a computer lab with a network supporting real-time CMC. Because ENFI allows teachers and students to explore, collaborate, and expand on ideas in class in writing, and allows them to see each other in the process of developing ideas, writing to and for each other and not just to "the teacher," ENFI supplements and expands on the activities teachers can use to help students meaningfully participate in a discourse community and improve their writing.

The study conducted by Karen Hartman, Sara Kiesler, Lee Sproull and their colleagues (Chapter 3) examines the effects of using network technologies in learning to write on teacher-student and student-student interactions. In a writing course emphasizing multiple drafts and collaboration, two sections used traditional modes of communication (face-to-face, paper, phone); and two other sections, in addition to using traditional modes, also used various electronic modes (electronic mail, bulletin boards, etc.). The patterns of social interaction were measured twice: six weeks into the semester and again at the end of the semester. Results indicate that teachers in the networked sections interacted more with their students than teachers in the regular sections. Whereas teachers in the regular sections marginally increased their use of traditional communication over time, teachers in the networked sections substantially increased their use of electronic communication over time without significantly decreasing their use of traditional modes of teacher-student communication. In addition, they found that teachers communicated more electronically with less able students than with more able students and that less able students communicated more electronically with other students.

In Chapter 4, Helen J. Schwartz uses experiences gained in an introductory literature class over the course of five semesters to explore the evolutionary process of answering the questions: "How and why should technology be used in a particular discipline?" and "How does it serve urban commuters in particular?" Nontraditional urban commuter students used computers in class and out to discuss course work as a supplement to face-to-face classes. Experience with five different configurations of pedagogical methods are described, including the use of a computer program developed by Schwartz for use in her classes. These helped shape procedures in a distance-education course, with subsequent replanning. Her current conclusions are presented, but she feels that teachers who learn from them must also evolve and discover their own answers.

Dramatic changes in theories of language and literacy learning have been underway for some time and have taken into account ideas of pragmatic coherence, authenticity in interpersonal dialogue, and situational constraints on communication. Only recently, however, have there been consequences for classroom practice at the postsecondary level. In the fifth chapter, Russell A. Hunt describes one set of strategies, called "Collaborative Investigation," for embedding written language in social situations in educational contexts. This strategy has been used in recent years in a wide range of disciplines and for students ranging from freshmen to those in graduate school. More specifically, it describes one way in which computer network technology has been utilized to address the logistic and practical difficulties posed by such uses of writing and reading aid to facilitate treating language in authentically dialogic ways. A class collaboratively investigating l8th-century English literature used electronic mail for communication between student and teacher and between students, an electronic bulletin board for "class discussions" and decision making, and a dedicated common directory for creating, sharing, and editing research reports on various aspects of the subject and for producing a "class book"-a desktop-published result of the work of the course, of which each student got a copy.

Edward Barrett's chapter (Chapter 6) describes the Networked Educational Online System (NEOS) that was developed by writing faculty with support from Project Athena at MIT. NEOS does not model presumed cognitive states in students; rather it models the interactions among all members of a writing class. NEOS supports the creation, exchange, annotation, and display of text in real-class time, as well as out of class at numerous workstations throughout the fully distributed MIT network. Use of NEOS in the electronic classroom and out of class empowers students as peer reviewers and can significantly improve their writing skills. Barrett finds that many students prefer it to the traditional classroom for its ability to integrate theory and practice and for the greater interaction it supports among all class members and instructors.

In Chapter 7, Cecilia G. Manrique and Harry W. Gardiner describe some of the ways in which faculty members at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse have employed electronic mail in fulfilling the institutional trilateral goals of bringing together computing, writing and an internationalized curriculum. Manrique and Gardiner include communication with students in foreign countries as components of Political Science and Cross-Cultural Psychology courses. Attention is given to some of the advantages and disadvantages of using electronic mail in specific courses, and they show where it has been successful as well as note some of the pitfalls that accompany such a nontraditional method of delivering education. Suggestions are made for incorporating electronic mail into a variety of courses through resources available to students and faculty in "netland."

Ted J. Singletary and Holly Anderson, in Chapter 8, describe the First-Year Teacher Network that was instituted by Boise State University to help ease the difficult induction process of new teachers entering the profession. Twenty-five first-year teachers in 10 southwestern Idaho counties communicated through an electronic bulletin board system on a wide range of classroom and emotional topics. The support program, now in its fourth year of operation, has been successful in providing neophytes with access to university expertise, online databases, and other services. The First-Year Teacher Network is perceived as a valuable source of peer support and as a way to reduce feelings of isolation.

Karen Bruce's discussion (Chapter 9) briefly elaborates on the importance of information technology in medicine, outlines the use of various types of CMC in that educational setting, and presents outcome data from a project implementing a 2-year longitudinal computer curriculum at East Carolina University School of Medicine. Bruce determined that the information explosion in medical practice and science had profoundly affected the information management needs of physicians and physicians-in-training. Over the last 60 years the structure and goals of medical education have remained essentially unchanged. The volume of medical knowledge, however, has grown exponentially. The sine qua non of a good medical education remains knowing all you need to know, not just knowing how to discriminate what you must know most of the time and where to find what you cannot possibly know an of the time. Current information technology, including computer-mediated communication (CMC), provides a number of tools to improve medical practitioners' management and utilization of this information. The value of information obtained via CMC continues to improve rapidly; however, as Bruce points out, the ability of physicians and physicians-in-training to use this technology has not kept pace.

Gail Thomas's chapter describes the development and presentation of two courses featuring online training for online information retrieval systems. Beginning and advanced courses use the Online Training and Practice (ONTAP) databases of Dialog Information Services, Inc., and the asynchronous computer conferencing capabilities of Unison's PARTI software to deliver skills training over the modem. Both beginning and advanced courses have been offered since 1989 for graduate academic credit through Connected Education, Inc., and the Media Studies Program, New School for Social Research, New York city, NY.

In the final chapter, Mauri Collins presents a brief introduction to the various wide area networks (BITnet, Internet, Fidonet, etc.), networking, and the use of Internet information retrieval tools. Common networking acronyms are defined and explained, and instructions for the use of the file transfer protocol (ftp) and the remote login protocol (Telnet) are given. The format for electronic mail addresses is decoded and explained. Listserv and Usenet discussion groups are introduced and differentiated and instructions are given for joining Listserv discussion groups. The chapter concludes with a short list of sources for further networking information.

Bergeron, B. (1994). Personalized data representation: Supporting the individual needs of knowledge workers. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 3(1), 93-109.

Author’s Abstract: For maximum effectiveness, the presentation of textual information should be such that the level of sophistication suits the reader's needs, background, and familiarity with the topic under discussion. One benefit of using computers to present textual data is the possibility of empowering readers with an ability to dynamically vary the presentation of information at the word and sentence level. Textual information authored from a single perspective and in a style and vocabulary aimed at a particular audience can be made accessible and understandable to a wide variety of readers, regardless of their backgrounds. Personal presentation engines or filters can be applied to virtually any digital textual information sources, from educational courseware and books on CD-ROM to medical and legal records and online information services.

Abstract: This article is an attempt to evaluate the ability of hypertext to offer personalized data representation specifically as it relates to medical education. Bergeron’s laboratory with feedback from two years of courseware designed a way to offer each user a somewhat personalized form of information retrieval. Basically what it amounted to was an option on starting the courseware that allowed users to choose information in its original form (full of acronyms), with or without acronyms expanded, or with or without a pronunciation guide. Users could also choose to view the courseware simplified or not. The original form was used the most, followed closely by the form with definitions, and each of the other ways was used a significant amount of the time. The findings suggest generally that there are considerable variations in how students use courseware when given the option to personalize. Also according to Bergeron "there are two basic types of users, active and passive. Passive users want to view the application with minimal effort, while active users want to take control of navigating through materials."

Bergeron, B., & Obeid, J. (1995). Temporal issues in the design of virtual learning environments. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(2/3), 127-145.

Author’s Abstract: Computer-based virtual environments, including multimedia clinical patient case simulations, are uniquely suited to modulating content scope, difficulty level, and presentation rate. However, it is the perceived manner and rate of temporal progression and event duration that directly influences realism and educational effectiveness. Unlike other presentation modalities, computer-based educational applications provide a means of changing the perception of time through automatic manipulation of the user interface, content difficulty, technical complexity, and other areas that can be defined by the application author. In addition, a complex set of subjective variables, including the user's attention span, interest in the subject matter, and a variety of personal factors, can distort the intended perception of time. Although subjective variability cannot be avoided, temporal cues can be used to provide users with an idea of the present moment, the rate and manner of time passage, the time remaining, whether time is considered an absolute or relative quantity, a historical perspective on what has occurred. Authors should be aware of the user's perception of time and how this perception can be used to support the educational process.

Abstract: This article describes how hypermedia can be used to compress or expand time, how to visually present time in hypermedia, and how these manipulations can be used to control learning experiences particularly within the medical profession. Bergeron and Obeid describe time compression as a way to "make a lengthy process more understandable". They also say that speeding up the progression of time can lead to increased stress on the learner if it is related to task completion. Slowing down time can help to illustrate processes that occur too quickly, or to increase the time a novice has to complete a new operation. Slowing down time also reduces the stress on the user. Bergeron and Obeid stress the importance of the learner understanding the temporal progression of the hypermedia through the use of clocks, timer bars, music, or other aural cues. The remainder of the article gives examples from medical education and clinical competence testing.

Beymer, D., & Poggio, T. (1996). Image representations for visual learning. Science, 272 (5270), 1905.

Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT American Association for the Advancement of Science 1996

Computer vision researchers are developing new approaches to object recognition and detection that are based almost directly on images and avoid the use of intermediate three-dimensional models. Many of these techniques depend on a representation of images that induces a linear vector space structure and in principle requires dense feature correspondence. This image representation allows the use of learning techniques for the analysis of images (for computer vision) as well as for the synthesis of images (for computer graphics).

Full Text: COPYRIGHT American Association for the Advancement of Science 1996

Abstract: Very dense scientific article describing the use of vector based recognition and compression methods for images as opposed to using the current pixel based methods. Vector based imaging has the advantage of identifying lines and colors instead of points and colors and so has the potential to dramatically reduce the file size for images and image based (video) materials. Vector based recognition could be used to help computers see and identify 3-dimensional objects more easily.

Blake, T. (1997). Motion in instructional media: some subject-display mode interactions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44, 975-985.

Author’s Summary: The study was designed to test the hypothesis that motion in visual media can be differentially effective in enhancing the learning of complex spatial relation's as a function of the viewer's aptitude. 84 subjects (42 nudes and 42 females) of high and low spatial aptitude (as measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Test of Spatial Visualization) were taught the movement patterns of 5 chessmen with 1 of 3 instructional films: (1) a "stills" condition which simulated a slide presentation, (2) an "Arrows" condition which was identical to the "Stills" condition except for the addition of an animated cueing arrow, (3) a "Full Motion" condition which followed a standard motion picture format. Subjects of high aptitude showed no differences between instructional modes. Subjects of low aptitude performed better with both motion conditions but no differences were found between them.

Abstract: This article used a group of 84 subjects who were naïve about chess to test the effectiveness of motion in instruction. They were shown one of three films. The first showed the chess pieces in their original position and the subjects were told what these pieces could do and then following a black screen the pieces were moved. The second was identical to the first but a wooden arrow was moved to show the direction of the movement of the pieces. The third showed the actual movement of the pieces. The results showed that the use of motion significantly improved performance, but showed no significant difference between the two motion instructions (moving arrows, and actual piece movement).

Bracey, G. W. (1988). Computers in class: Some social and psychological consequences. Electronic Learning, 7 (8), 28.

Author’s Abstract: A study of five New York City high schools shows that students, as well as teachers, find computer-aided classrooms more conducive to learning.

Abstract: This brief article describes a study done in New York City by psychologists. The researchers interviewed students, teachers, department heads, computer coordinators and principals. It found that "students like computer classes". Students said that teachers in computer-aided classes were more attentive. Students also said they felt there was less competition, more control, and less pressure about getting wrong answers in the computer-aided classes. Teachers "teach better with computers". The teachers felt that the classes were less teacher-centered. They also felt that they spent more time with the students individually and that they had "more accurate self appraisals in computer classrooms".

Brosius, H. B. (1993). The effects of emotional pictures in television news. Communication Research, 20 (1), 105-124.

Library Abstract: Visual illustrations accompanying television news broadcasts are often hypothesized to increase viewers’ recall of news items. A review of reported studies, however, yields mixed results for this notion. The present article argues that effects of emotional visuals are reflected not in the exact recall of the text but through specific kinds of errors in recall and the relation of these errors to certain parts of the item. These errors occur because emotional visuals focus attention on specific parts of a news item, and that recall of the item is reconstructed from perceptual judgments that are generalized from these specific parts. Results of an experiment (N = 125) supported the hypothesized effects.

Caldwell, G. P. , & Ginthier, D. W. (1996). Differences in learning styles of low socioeconomic status for low and high achievers. Education, 117 (1), 141-148.

Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT 1996 Project Innovation

Differences in the learning style of elementary aged low socioeconomic status, low and high achievers were investigated. Eighty-two subjects, drawn from a pool of 194 third and fourth grade students in 2 low socioeconomic elementary schools were administered the Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Dunn, Dunn & Price, 1989). Variables on the LSI differentiating low from high achievers (p [less than) .05), in math and reading, were used as predictor variables in a linear discriminate analysis. Predictor variables correctly classified 78.83% of the students in reading achievement and 80% in math achievement. All significant variables were related to motivation. The findings indicated that, for low SES elementary students, motivational (internal) rather than environmental (external) factors predicted achievement.

Abstract: This study investigated the differences in learning styles between low and high achievers among children of low socioeconomic status. The article cites research (Hobbs, 1990) that claims socioeconomic status is the single best predictor of academic achievement. As could be expected low SES leads to low achievement. The research used the Learning Styles Inventory created by Dunn, Dunn, and Price (1989) on a sample of 82 subjects. The study found that student’s learning style was not a factor in success, rather motivational factors were at work.

Calvi, L. (1997). Navigation and disorientation: A case study. Journal of Educational multimedia and Hypermedia, 6(3/4), 305-320.

Author’s Abstract: This paper presents the preliminary results of a pilot research project on disorientation in hypertextual educational systems. As such it focuses on spatial cognition by exploring its correlation with hypermedia navigation. This approach also implies the consideration of the more specific relationship between comprehension and navigation. This is why the paper starts by concentrating on one of the truisms of human-computer interaction (FICI), that is, stating that users need to build some form of conceptual representation of the devices (e.g., a book, a database, or a hypertext system) they are interacting with in order to understand them.

Provided that it is possible to identify the existence of a similarity between navigation in the real world and navigation in a virtual world like a hyperenvironment, an inevitable question comes to the fore, that is, whether the same devices (e.g., maps) which have proven to be appropriate in a "real," physical navigation can be as useful in the case of hypermedia navigation. A series of experiments have been set up within our department to verify the validity of all the previous assumptions.

Abstract: This article examines the possibilities of using metaphors to create navigation in a hypertextual environment. Calvi tries to determine "whether there exists a correlation between the user’s ability to navigate within a hypermedia system and his/her ability [to] [sic] build up a mental model of its structure" and "to verify whether there are better cues than others in this respect and to identify them. The study used 25 participants who had three different kinds of navigation to use a general index, some typographical cues (links), and a block diagram (map). The study showed that the users’ ability to build a mental model "seems to be a function of the number of times users interact with the system." When the subjects were allowed to navigate freely in one of the three methods 85% used the content list over all other navigational cues. However when given a task-oriented navigation 85% chose to use the map.

Choi, W. (September-October 1997). Designing effective scenarios for computer-based instructional simulations: Classification of essential structures. Educational Technology, 13-21.

Author’s Abstract: This article identifies critical features and their elements in designing effective scenarios in computer-based instructional simulations. The scenario refers to a specific course of action and events occurring within the simulation, and it attempts to recreate lifelike situations. In attempting to specify which critical considerations and principles will be most fruitful for scenario construction, the author identifies the main body of the scenario in terms of the following seven features: (1) sequence, (2) operating procedures, (3) characteristics of participant(s), (4) characteristics of simulated objects, (5) level of fidelity, (6) time frame, and (7) noncomputer activities. Elements for each feature are shown in detail with related examples.

Abstract: This is a great application article describing the elements required to design computer-based instruction. Choi lists three major design aspects—the scenario, the underlying model, and the instructional overlay. The focus of this article is on the scenario which refers to "a specific course of action and events occurring within the environment, and it attempts to recreate lifelike situations. Choi lists seven main features: (1) sequence, (2) operating procedures, (3) characteristics of participant(s), (4) characteristics of simulated objects, (5) level of fidelity, (6) time frame, and (7) noncomputer activities. Each of these is defined and examples are given.

Crosby, M. E., & Stelovsky, J. (1995). From multimedia instruction to multimedia evaluation. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(2/3), 147-162.

Authors’ Abstract: The advantages of multimedia courseware are often considered to be self-evident. Nevertheless, we need to establish which media are most effective and, more importantly, what type of students benefit most. To explore different aspects of multimedia in learning environments, presentations of typical computer science algorithm, such as a binary search and simple sorting methods (bubble, insertion, selection sort) were constructed. This courseware visualizes the dynamic behavior of the algorithms using multimedia techniques such as static and animated text, graphics and nonlinear structure.

To contrast the effectiveness of this courseware with traditional instruction, two lab sections were taught alternately, one section using the courseware and the other section using static (view graph and blackboard) presentations. Comprehension gain scores were analyzed with respect to the subjects' cognitive style (sensing or intuitive) and media format of tests (textual or graphical). Subjects performed better when instructed using the multimedia courseware. More importantly, the subjects' cognitive style and the media format of the test questions influenced their performance. In particular, this study indicates that multimedia dramatically improves the performance of subjects categorized as "sensing" (concrete) and that graphical questions match multimedia instruction better than traditional textual tests.

Abstract: Crosby and Stelovsky are attempting to get at the effectiveness of multimedia instruction. They use 56 students to determine if subjects perform better with multimedia instruction than traditional instruction, if there is a difference in the subjects’ performance depending on their personality type (cognitive style), and if there is a difference in the subjects’ performance depending on whether the test questions are textual or graphical. The researchers compared pre- and post-tests among two groups (multimedia, and traditional classroom) to determine their results. The results showed that multimedia presentations resulted in higher performance and that class attendance was much higher in the laboratory sessions which used the multimedia instruction. The study also showed that there is a difference in the performance of subjects based on their personality types particularly if they were concrete learners as opposed to abstract learners.

Gray Learning Styles/Teaching Styles

Lime Learning

Turquoise Teaching

Purple Producing

Dwyer, F. M. (no date). Adapting visual illustrations for effective learning. Harvard Educational Review, 250-263

Author’s Abstract: It is relatively apparent that visual illustrations are rapidly becoming an almost universal means of instruction: slides, photographs, cartoons, transparencies, filmstrips, and sketches are now in use from kindergarten through college. Even though research has established that the use of carefully prepared and relevant visual aids can improve student achievement, there has been no attempt to determine the relative effectiveness of the various types of visual illustrations. Presumably not all types of visual illustrations will be equally efficient in promoting the learning, of different types of educational tasks. Justification for the use of various types of visual illustrations should be based on their distinctive contributions to specific types of learning.

Author’s Conclusion: This study represents an initial inquiry into the complex problems of comparisons, between media, and of the use of different media to produce maximum learning. The results seem to indicate that the reduction of realistic detail in an illustration does not necessarily reduce its instructional effectiveness and in many cases improves it. Most important, there were significant differences in the effectiveness of different types of instruction for different educational objectives. In the final analysis, it is probably necessary to deter, mine what details are crucial cues for particular lessons.

So far, there has been very little research to determine the specific effects of various types of visual illustrations for either general or particular educational objectives. What is needed is extensive research into and development of various types of visual illustrations, and how they may mediate learning.

It is readily acknowledged that the effects of visual illustrations on learning depend predominately on the characteristics of the students, the characteristics of the content, and the ways in which the content is organized. Even though this study was conducted in a specific content area with a specific type of student, it opens avenues for further research, some of which are suggested below.

1. Since this is one of the first studies which has attempted to investigate

the relative effectiveness of various types of visual illustrations in complementing oral instruction, it should be replicated in the same and in other content areas in order to establish confidence in the results.

2. Further investigation,. using the present study, is needed to determine the effectiveness of the various visual illustrations in achieving other educational objectives.

3. How would the implications for visual learning, found in this study, compare with the results obtained at the elementary and secondary levels where the pupils have not had the opportunity to be exposed to biological content?

4. Would the results be different if each student were to receive his instruction individually-if students were allowed to program their presentations at their own rate, controlling, the amount of time they looked at the illustrations?

1. Similar investigation is needed along different dimensions, e.g. the effectiveness of color in photographs and drawings.

Abstract: This article is somewhat dated, but provided an interesting comparison of a series of visual images ranging from abstract to realistic. Dwyer uses a group of students broken up into 4 groups. Group one only received an oral presentation, group two got the same presentation with a relatively abstract linear illustration as support, group three two got the same presentation with a clearer drawing that was shaded for support, and the final group two got the same presentation with photographs for support. Dwyer found that the abstract drawing was the most successful at everything but term recollection. Also of note, the photographs were the least effective even worse than the oral presentation alone group. This study seems to point out that illustrations offering more information than the users need reduces the effectiveness despite the fact that visual illustrations generally benefit learners.

El-Tigi, M., & Branch, R. M. (May-June 1997). Designing for interaction, learner control, and feedback during web-based learning. Educational Technology, 23-29.

Abstract: This article promotes instructional design based on general systems theory is learner centered and humanistic. The article shows (minus the actual code) how one might use frames, image maps and tables to optimize information presentation. It also offers a two phase Web-based learning model that walks you through the process both from the theory side as well as the application side.

English, R. E., & Reigeluth, C. M. (1996). Formative research on sequencing instruction with the elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44 (1), 23-42.

Author’s Abstract: The elaboration theory of instruction offers guidelines for several patterns of simple-to-complex sequencing which were developed primarily from cognitive theory, especially schema theory. However, there has been relatively little empirical research on the theory. This study helps fill this void by conducting formative research to identify weaknesses in the theory and possible ways of overcoming those weaknesses. Four chapters in a text on electrical circuit analysis were revised according to the theory. The first phase of the study used interactive data collection for immediate, detailed reactions and suggestions on the sequence. Phase 2 utilized non-interactive data collection to assess the external validity of the results. Qualitative data analysis provided insights into ways to improve the theory. None of the results indicated that elements should be deleted. Weaknesses indicated new methods that should be added to the theory and existing methods that should be modified and/or enhanced.

Bruner (1966) proposed that the sequence of instruction will affect the students' ability to grasp, transform, and transfer what they are learning. "The sequence in which a learner encounters material with(in) a domain of knowledge (will) affect the difficulty he(/she) will have in achieving mastery" (p.49).

Sequencing deals with the order in which elements of subject matter, including information, skills, and cognitive strategies, are taught during instruction. Reigeluth has striven to integrate the knowledge base about sequencing instruction into a comprehensive set of strategies and prescriptions called the elaboration theory of instruction (Reigeluth, 1987, 1992; Reigeluth & Darwazeh, 1982; Reigeluth & Rodgers, 1980; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983). Reigeluth's work is a result of his concern that most of the widely used sequencing strategies were highly fragmented, demotivating, and inconsistent with much knowledge generated recently by cognitive psychologists about how knowledge is best assimilated into schemata (Reigeluth, 1979, p.8). Therefore, Reigeluth pursued the goal of producing guidance for developing more holistic sequences that would enhance understanding, foster motivation, and have the potential to facilitate learner control. M.D. Merrill provided much initial insight and inspiration for the development of the elaboration theory (see e.g., Merrill, 1977; Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson, & Spiller, 1980).

Abstract: This article focuses on the idea of sequencing. Sequencing according to English and Reigeluth is a key variable affecting a student’s ability to learn. The elaboration theory of instruction (ETI) is the tool that English and Reigeluth use to approach the concept of sequencing and it prescribes different sequencing for different learning situations. ETI begins all first lessons in a sequence called the epitome lesson. This is a lesson that teaches the one or a few fundamental, generalizable, principles. [T]he purpose of this study was to further develop and improve the sequencing prescriptions [of ETI] in terms of their influence on the effectiveness and appeal to instruction. This study was approached from a qualitative perspective and in 2 unique stages in order to triangulate the data. The first stage used ten students and three students were a part of stage 2. The data was coded and the article lists some of the respondents comments as well as improvements that could be made in ETI. The authors also offer a sequencing pattern as their tentative conclusions.

Filipczak, B. (March 1995). Different strokes: learning styles in the classroom. Training, 32, 43-48.

Abstract: Filipczak uses Rita Dunn’s version of learning styles to approach the topic of learning styles in relation to training. This article is an overview of what learning styles are, and how to use them in training programs. Dunn’s 4 learning styles categories are visual learners, auditory learners, kinesthetic and tactual learners. Filipczak borrows quite heavily from Dunn throughout this article. There are a number of examples listed in this article from training programs in actual corporations which give you a feel of how they can work (or not work) within the corporate environment. Dunn prescribes a testing process (she has an associated form) followed by an adjustment to the general training strategy. She also suggests using multiple learning styles to meet different learners needs.

Furht, B. (Ed.). (1999). Handbook of internet and multimedia systems and applications. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1858-0.

Galbreath, J. (1992). The educational buzzword of the 1990s: Multimedia, or is it hypermedia, or interactive multimedia, or…?. Educational Technology, 32 (4), 15-19.

Author’s Introduction: Digital Video Interactive, Laserdisc Interactive, Compact Disc-Interactive, E-Motion Video, Media Integration, Interactive Multimedia, Ultimedia, Hypermedia. Remember a time when the educational technology world was a-buzz with just two words: Interactive Video? This is not so anymore.

Today, in the world of computers, media, and digital technologies, multimedia has become the darling of phrases used to describe the fusion of the computer and various media formats. Of course, just what multimedia means will certainly depend on who one asks.

The purpose of this article is to examine what multimedia is by today's standards, provide some general history, and discuss how it is being developed and delivered in the 1990s. Regardless of one's position in the educational technology world, the importance of multimedia technology cannot be overlooked and is certainly going to have a continuing impact on the way we educate, communicate, and enjoy our spare time in the 1990s and beyond.

Abstract: This article gives an overview of what multimedia is. Galbreath begins by presenting a series of definitions of multimedia from a variety of sources. He then goes through the different forms that it takes such as interactive video, CD-ROM, digital video interactive, compact disc-interactive, Commodore Dynamic Total vision, CD-ROM XA, and LD-ROM. He has a nice table describing all the details of each medium from it’s a/v abilities, to its storage medium , to its hardware requirements.

Geiger, S., & Reeves, B. (1993). The effects of scene changes and semantic relatedness on attention to television. Communication Research, 20 (2), 155-175.

Authors Abstract: Two laboratory experiments tested the proposition that attention to television is the product of an interaction between message structure and content. Cuts (structure) were hypothesized to affect attention differently, depending on whether they linked related or unrelated content. Subjects viewed six semantically related and six semantically unrelated sequences of television. In Experiment 1, attention was measured using reaction times to a secondary task at one video frame, 1 second and 2 seconds following a cut. Unrelated sequences required more attention 1 second after the cut, Attention to related sequences decreased over the course of the entire sequence, whereas attention to unrelated sequences remained constant over time. Experiment 2 assessed attention during the first second after the cut. Related sequences produced longer reaction times immediately following the cut at 10 and 20 frames; unrelated sequences produced longer reaction times further from the cut, at 20 frames and 1 second. This pattern of results is explained using a dual process model of attention to television.

This experiment focused specifically on the differences between the two most extreme types of cuts, related and unrelated. These two levels were selected to assess if any differences could be found in attention to cuts. There is also a third type of cut that connects related scenes within a narrative. These are related shifts that come across space and time and are common occurrences in television. This experiment provides the foundation for exploring shifts when viewers have to orient to completely new information and connect it with previously presented information. Future research should focus on this kind of shift; to better complete our understanding of viewer responses to cuts.

There are three more general implications of this study for understanding television processing. First, television viewing is influenced by message features and viewer discretion. Second, the study stresses the importance of content on local processing and structure on meaning. This suggests a topology of stimulus complexity that includes both content and structure as factors at the local level. Finally, it presents a means for incorporating the importance of memory and other nonvisual characteristics instrumental in the processing of television over time. Future research should focus on the importance of these cognitive processes in how viewers make sense of the complex stimulus that we know as television.

Abstract: Geiger & Reeves have three questions they are asking: Does responding to a cut require attention? Is attention following a cut independent from the relatedness between segments that are connected? Is attention to sequences over time affected by the relatedness? They used 7 different types of programming and put related scenes from the same program on one video and unrelated scenes from all 7 different programming groups on another. They were instructed to push a button when they heard a specific tone. How quickly the subjects were able to respond to the tone was their measure of the amount of response that is required when viewing related and unrelated cuts in videos. One of the more interesting, and stronger findings of the study was that relatedness between the cuts dramatically reduced attention over time (You’re watching this program and getting into it your attention is reduced, really!?). They do outline a time scale (in frames) for viewer attention following two common types of cuts.

Gilbert, S. W. (March/April 1996). Making the most of a slow revolution. Change, 10-23.

Abstract: This article is written from the perspective of an information technology and education expert in the field and has a lot of practical advice for teachers and administrators about technology’s strengths and weaknesses. Gilbert offers 11 obstacles to improving teaching and learning with information technologies. He follows this with 12 recommendations for avoiding some of these obstacles. He offers down to earth suggestions and more than a little experience giving anyone attempting to implement technology a good understanding of the issues and problems that you might face.

Given, B. K. (1997). How to deal with difficult principals: A learning styles approach [Special section: teacher leadership]. The Clearing House, 70 (5), 257-261.

Author’s Abstract: Strategies for working with people whose interaction patterns are different can be developed through the learning styles approach. Based on this approach, teachers must honor the principals' physiological preferences in dealing with difficult principals.

Author’s Summary: Clearly, environmental, sociological, and emotional preferences are important, but, based on research, it appears that to resolve issues with difficult principals it is most important to honor physiological preferences. The physiological domain pertains to sensory input, food intake, time of day preferences, and activity needs. To honor these needs (1) present weighty issues to the principal's preferred modality in a setting that is pleasing to that modality, (2) provide food if the need for intake is high, (3) schedule appointments with the principal during her most positive, alert time of day, and (4) choose an environment or setting that addresses the principal's need for mobility. Initially, taking those steps may feel manipulative and awkward; they need not be either. Your intention is to create comfort so that attention can be placed where it belongs - on ideas rather than delivery or setting.

When addressing the principal's style preferences, teachers need to understand their own style preferences and identify where the preferences differ from those of the principal. Even though you are comfortable with your learning style, which seems like "the way it's supposed to be," without a doubt, you are someone else's difficult person. Gentle humor and acknowledgment of style differences can ease tensions and result in respectful interactions that lead to favorable outcomes for all concerned. Ideas and content need not be diminished, but how they are presented may carry more weight than previously considered. Consequently, honoring a person's learning style can modify interaction patterns and recast difficult principals into preferred colleagues.

Abstract: This article relies heavily on Dunn et al. (1993) learning styles model. It is essentially a call to use a learning styles based approach to teach students. Given cites numerous articles supporting the use of a learning styles approach to teaching subjects. Given discusses learning style preferences, psychological preferences, physiological preferences and values and how each of these may be addressed to improve the ability to learn and the comfort level associated with that learning.

Golas, B. (1981). Complexity and learning in business policy games. Simulation & Games, 12 (3), 295-306.

Author’s Summary: Can a highly complex game be a more effective learning aid? The issue of complexity and learning in business policy games has been considered here as a research problem. The study approached this query through multiple correlations and analyses of variance. The findings accounted for the relationships of perceived learning in three highly complex simulations and compared these games in an experimental design.

USCLE, a highly complex and dynamic game, was found to suggest increased effort in external communications with professors, umpires, or players from other teams. Further, it suggested lower ratings of the quality of coordination in team work. These changes in team behavior activity apparently increased perceptions of learning. Thus complexity was shown to suggest a positive impact on perceived learning in business policy games. A highly complex, dynamic game can be a more effective learning aid than a game that is merely highly complex. This research suggests such a conclusion.

This claim of learning effectiveness is clear. The average perceived learning of the dynamic USCLE game states that the game aided "quite a bit." On the other hand, the average perceived learning of the other game states that the game aided "moderately." Although the study compared different settings, the findings are for relatively small samples of graduate students and highly complex games, not all complex business simulations.

Nevertheless, any new research in this area must realize that study variables should include behavioral activity measures as well as ratings of simulation realism and personal characteristics. Also, it is vital that game complexity include environmental business factors as a relevant dimension. Specific recommendations for using these research findings imply that:

(1) game designers should construct flexible simulations, capable of being adjusted by game administrators for increased complexity;

(2) teachers should organize administrations of complex simulations to provide sufficient communications and to facilitate team coordination; and

(3) students should recognize learning in complex simulation competitions includes effectively managing communications and achieving coordination.

Further, this study is one instance that suggests that "it is possible to represent real and hypothetical states of various dimensions of legal systems by means of computer simulations" (Evan, 1976). Indeed, the dynamic event for the experimental USCLE business policy game was an environmental legal implementation. Certainly learning, in complex business po4cy games, emphasizes understanding, integrating, and managing alternatives and developments, in addition to assimilating facts. In conclusion, complex games can be valuable; they require many considerations, including communications and coordination, for all concerned.

Abstract: This article is very specific to the field of business and in particular business policy. It attempts to determine how differences in the complexity of computerized simulations used as educational business games effect student understanding. The researchers here used a survey questionnaire with six questions (included) to get the data used in this study. The results (shown above) found that moderately high levels of complexity benefited students’ understanding. Also this study concludes that it is important for instructors to facilitate communication and teamwork and to let the students know the importance of teamwork in solving complex problems.

Gould, J. D., Alfaro, L., Barnes, V., Finn, R., Grischkowsky, N., & Minuto, A. (1987). Reading is slower from CRT displays than from paper: Attempts to isolate a single variable explanation. Human Factors, 29(3), 269-299.

Author’s Abstract: People read more slowly from CRT displays than from paper (see, for example, Gould and Grischkowsky, 1984). This report summarizes ten experiments and several more analyses that seek to explain the cause of this reading-speed difference. Typically, each experiment isolates one variable and studies whether it explains the difference. Results show that no one variable studied (e.g., experience in using CRT displays; display orientation; character size, font, or polarity) explains it. The tentative conclusion is that the difference is due to a combination of variables, probably centering on the image quality of the characters themselves.

Each experiment and analysis generally studied one variable to determine whether or not it could account for most of the reading speed difference. No single variable seems to do this. In fact, no single variable seems to be so powerful as to account for most of the difference. We tentatively believe that the difference may be due to a combination of several variables. Aspect ratio, a variable manipulated in the proofreading versus comprehensive and polarity experiments, probably does not account for much. Dynamic characteristics and actually using the terminal itself may contribute a little, as suggested by the difference in reading speed between reading from the 3277 and reading from photographs of it (see the photograph experiment). The 3278 leads to somewhat faster reading than does the 3277 (see the different-CRT experiment). Extensive experience in using CRT displays reduced the difference somewhat (Experiment 2).

Most of the evidence, including that from later experiments (Gould, Alfaro, Finn, Haupt, and Minuto, in press), suggests that the image quality of the characters, rather than task or user variables, is most likely responsible for the reading-speed difference. The visual-angle experiment, while ruling out visual angle, showed that people read photographs of the 3277 significantly more slowly than they read photographs of paper Letter Gothic characters. This suggests that the associated differences in image quality, font, color, and polarity contribute to the reading-speed difference independent of any contribution that the CRT terminal itself might make. Our analysis of scale factors and line spacing showed that these variables could not be ruled out with certainty.

Reviews of decades of reading research on typeset materials by Paterson and Tinker (1940) and Tinker (1963) show that most physical variables, when studied individually, have only a modest effect (10016 or less), even when varied over a large range. These include line width, line spacing, margin size, print size, and font type. By combining several "reasonable" but "non-optimal" print conditions, however, reading rate is reduced by 20% or so, just as in the present experiments. The effect of these variables is generally cumulative, sometimes less and sometimes more than additive. These earlier researchers also observed that even when a variable has little effect on reading performance, people may have strong preferences for particular levels of it. For example, the range of difference in reading speed among nine type fonts was only 5%. Yet the average rank-order preferences ranged from 23 to 82-a range of over 300%.

We have recently turned from looking for an explanation of the reading-speed difference to searching for conditions in which people can read as fast from CRT displays as from paper. The results of several experiments (Gould, Alfaro, Finn, Haupt, and Minuto, in press), using anti-aliased characters of paper-like fonts (Scholtz, 1984) produced by the IBM Research YODA system (Gupta, Bantz, Sholtz, Evangelisti, and De Orazio, 1986), have led to the identification of CRT-display conditions from which people read as fast as they read from good paper. This evidence also suggests that variables associated with the image quality of the CRT characters themselves account for the reading-speed difference.

Abstract: This article gives a great overview research comparing greenscreens to print materials. They summarize 10 experiments and come up with a list of a couple dozen variables that are investigated within. Paper orientation, type of reading, visual angles, display contrast, aspect ratio, CRT display experience, and age are some of the variables discussed. The research clearly in light of technology needs to be reproduced using modern technology. There are some interesting individual experiments within this summary that help explain some problems that do not completely relate to technology, such as how font and font size decisions affect print media reading speeds, how age relates to computer screen reading speeds, and how reading distances affect screen and print reading speeds. One of the experiments found that the difference between greenscreen reading speeds and print were equivalent to the difference between well printed text and really badly printed text. An example of these texts is provided and the badly printed text is unacceptably difficult to read.

Green, E. E., Cook, P. F., & Bolt, L. (July-August 1996). Fitting new technologies into traditional classrooms: Two case studies in the design of improved learning facilities. Educational Technology, 27-38.

Author’s Abstract: Research has shown that student learning, attitude, and behavior are influenced by classroom design. In this article, we examine that research and explain how five classrooms in two high schools were significantly remodeled to accommodate the capabilities of new instructional technologies to master Algebra 1. Our work examines what we know about good classroom design and suggests how this information should help us to build better new school buildings and remodel old ones to satisfy basic student needs of safety and comfort while taking advantage of new teaching/ learning technologies.

Abstract: "This report is essentially a description of two case studies." This is a very interesting article describing in detail the process of setting up electronic media classrooms. They cover the physical facilities very thoroughly--lighting, paint colors, workstations, surfaces, computers, whiteboards, furniture, design, even the purchasing agent for the school and their interactions with them. This is a great article for anyone in the process of trying to establish a "smart classroom(s).

Grimes, T. (1990). Audio-video correspondence and its role in attention and memory. Educational Technology Research and Development, 38 (3), 15-25.

Author’s Abstract: This study measured the effect of audio-video channel correspondence on attention and memory. Three versions of four TV news stories were the stimuli. The high- correspondence version employed a specific audio-video semantic match, the medium-correspondence version a less specific match, and the no-correspondence version no match. High channel correspondence promoted the most efficient division of attention and the best memory scores on visual and factual recognition measures. The medium-correspondence version yielded significantly worse visual memory and attention scores, but factual attention and memory scores equal to those for the high-correspondence version. The no-correspondence version yielded high visual recognition scores, but the worst visual attention scores, suggesting that attentional capacity boundaries were overwhelmed by the stimulus. The results across all conditions suggest that when attentional capacity is exceeded, memory of the overall story is degraded.

Abstract: This study utilized three versions of a video (news stories) one with tightly corresponding video and audio one with appropriate but not directly corresponding video and one with inappropriate non-corresponding video to determine the importance of video corresponding with audio in attention and memory. It used 202 students and tested them for factual memory and visual memory following the viewing of the different versions. Subjects were also told to hit a button when audio or video cue came on screen to determine how much attention was being paid to the audio or video (the idea here is the longer it took the more engrossed they were in the material). What they found was that when the correspondence was at its highest the students did the best on the memory tests for audio and visual recognition.

Hammer, C., & Dusek, R. V. (1995). Brain difference research and learning styles literature: from equity to discrimination. Feminist Teacher, 9 (2), 76-83.

Abstract: This article discusses the effect that research done on the physiological brain differences between male and female students and associated learning styles literature has on the approaches taken by teachers and administrators. Essentially this article argues that research which emphasizes differences between male and female learners has a negative effect on the issue of gender equity in education. Hammer and Dusek argue that this research has given educators and ultimately employers grounds to treat women differently than men. They connect the brain difference research and the learning styles research by the way that they categorize learners. "…the learning styles approach to teaching, combined with popular media stereotypes about male and female brain differences, has the danger of leading to a subtle, unconscious ‘learning styles tracking’ in which teachers assume that males naturally have greater spatial abilities than females, or that females innately have greater linguistic abilities.. than males."

Hequet, M. (1997). How does multimedia change training? Training (Minneapolis, Minn.), 34 A20-A22.

Abstract: This article describes the state of multimedia in training today. Hequet says first and foremost the multimedia has to be instructionally sound and that 95% of what’s out there is bad. Hequet gives several examples of companies that have gone the route of multimedia training (Burger King, U.S. Coast Guard, Metropolitan Insurance, MCI). Hequet then goes into a variety of advantages found in multimedia training (on-demand learning, low cost, consistency). Still in question is whether or not those who are unfamiliar with the style of training (computer) can benefit from this type of training.

Jacobson, M. J., Maouri, C., Mishra, P., & Kolar, C. (1995). Learning with hypertext learning environments: Theory, design, and research. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(4), 321-364.

Author’s Abstract: This paper reports on a study into the acquisition and transfer of complex knowledge after using a conceptually-indexed hypertext learning environment based on recent cognitive theory and research. The experiment employed two differently structured hypertext thematic criss-crossing (TCC) treatments, Guided TCC and Learner Selected TCC, that demonstrated interrelationships between abstract conceptual and case-specific knowledge components in the hypertext materials. These two hypertext treatments differed primarily in terms of the modeling and scaffolding they provided and the degree of learner control. The control condition allowed the fire exploration of the hypertext materials but provided no modeling or scaffolding support. Epistemic beliefs held by students concerning the nature of learning and the structure of knowledge were also assessed. Students who were assigned to the Guided TCC hypertext group and who regarded learning as an active process of constructing meaning were found to perform at a significantly higher level on a knowledge synthesis task of near transfer than students in the other treatment groups or students with a simpler set of epistemic beliefs. Overall, the results of this study suggest that students need explicit modeling and scaffolding support in order to learn complex knowledge from a case-based, conceptually-indexed hypertext learning environment. Implications of these findings for future hypertext and hypermedia research are also considered.

Abstract: This article is dated and covers hypertext from a HyperCard perspective. The authors use Cognitive Flexibility Theory and Situated Action Theory as they relate to the design of hypertext. This article is a difficult, tedious read and should be used only if one of these theories is being utilized.

James, D. C. S., Rienzo, B. A., Frazee, C. (1997). Using focus groups to develop a nutrition education video for high school students. Journal of School Health, 67 (9), 376-379.

Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT 1997 American School Health Association

Focus group interviews were used to develop a nutrition education video and a teacher's guide for use in Florida high schools. Authors conducted a pilot and four focus group interviews with ninth grade students in five geographically distinct regions of Florida. Most students agreed that a video with scenarios or success stories would work well. Teens expressed interest in 10 topics: eating disorders; consequences of unhealthy eating; preparing quick, healthy meals; what constitutes a balanced diet; nutrition and fitness; weight control; food and the environment; the food guide pyramid; nutrition facts and fallacies; and food labels. Students suggested no more than three or four topics should be covered in the video, and the video cast should consist mainly of teen-agers with different body sizes, who were average, attractive, and from different ethnic backgrounds. Music was recommended only for transitions between scenes, as background, or during the credits. (J Sch Health. 1997;67(9):376-379)

Abstract: The title tells you the objective of the focus groups studied to make a nutritional video. The authors do not describe why this objective was chosen other than to meet the "Healthy People 2000 objective to increase to 75% the proportion of the nation’s schools that provide nutrition education". Presumably the understood objective is to make a healthier student body. Also implied in this objective is a need for greater health or conversely a problem with health specifically as it applies to eating.

The researchers used four focus groups of ninth grade students at five separate locations in Florida. The focus groups had 6-8 students in them and each participant was paid $12 for participating. The article did not describe how the researchers solicited for members of their focus groups though they ended up with an extremely diverse group of students(29 students "six White males; seven White females; eight African American Females; three African American males; two Hispanic males; one Hispanic female; and two Asian males") so some sort of selective solicitation seems to have taken place. The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed by a research assistant. Transcripts were coded with inter-coder reliability of 86%. The data were coded for emergent and recurring themes.

The results related to four main categories: nutritional topics of interest to teens, video format, video cast, and video music. The categories yielded ten topics of interest to teens that amounted to an interest in the extremes of nutritional problems: death, anorexia, diabetes amputations, etc. The "video format" category found agreement that it was an appropriate medium to use. There was not consensus on what type of video should be used only that whatever type it should contain no more than three or four topics. The "video cast " category showed that the focus groups wanted teens of all sizes, not adults and not celebrities, or "Barbies" to be the main players involved. The "video music" category found that the focus groups thought music throughout would not be effective and should be used only for background, transitions, and credits.

I would have liked to see the underlying motives for this research at least outlined (e.g. 40% of American teens have nutritional deficiencies or weight problems). I also would have liked to see the underlying logic that led to the use of video as the medium of choice here. It seems they have done little research into what is the most effective way to reach their objectives. Their justification for using video over computer-based multimedia seems to me to be a subtle apology for the author’s own inadequacies which does not lend support to their essentially non-existent argument that video is the right media for the objectives stated. The authors, to their credit, did make clear the nature of their study did not lead to generalizable data. They also used a professional scriptwriter, dieticians, and health educators, to assist them in the production of the video. Ultimately, an article like this without the end product of the research offers little to evaluate and I have not seen the 20-minute video or the 70-page teachers guide that grew from this research.

Johnstone, S. M. & Krauth B. (March/April 1996). Balancing Quality and Access: Some Principles of good practice for the virtual university. Change, 38-41.

Abstract: This article is largely a summary of the efforts of 11 sparsely populated western states to adopt standard and practices to meet the needs of a growing population of virtual students involved in distance learning programs. The Principles of Good Practice are the focus of this article and they are presented within it. These principles address curriculum and instruction, institutional context and commitment to role and mission, faculty support, resources for learning, students and student services, commitment to support, and evaluation and assessment. Accreditation is also briefly covered and its importance to the future of distance learning.

Jones, T., & Berger, C. (1995). Students’ use of multimedia science instruction: Designing for the MTV generation?. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(4), 305-320.

Author’s Abstract: In this study, we analyze students' use of a multimedia chemistry instructional program entitled Seeing Through Chemistry; in particular, their use of the media components. We examine log files from a class of over 500 students and focus on media use. In addition to examining overall behavior profiles across the class, we examine variation within individual students, through use of sequence analysis. By combining these two techniques of analysis -- observing a large collection of data from a large sample, together with closer analysis of individual behaviors -- we can gain a clearer picture of the nature of interaction. In these data, we find a wide variety of individual styles in students' use of Seeing Through Chemistry. Even with same assignment, students have different usage patterns. This seems to indicate that students are able to use individual learning styles in well-designed multimedia. Furthermore, it does seem to be possible to support certain behaviors with different designed features (such as inquiry questions and concept maps).

Abstract: This research used log files of computer activity to determine usage patterns of students using a multimedia instructional program called Seeing Through Chemistry. Jones and Berger studied college students use of this program over a fairly long period of time (January through April) and collected over 700 log files representing students utilizing the program. They found that "Even with same assignment, students have different usage patterns. This seems to indicate that students are able to use individual learning styles in well-designed multimedia." They also were able to determine that certain features supported certain learning behaviors from an analysis of sequences. They found that students were using the questions and concept maps as content organizers as they worked through the program.

Kepplinger, H., & Donsbach, W. (1990). The impact of camera perspectives on the perception of a speaker. Studies in Educational Evaluation,16, 133-156.

Abstract: Kepplinger and Donsbach provide a brief literature review here but this article is largely research aimed at discovery. They are trying to discover how camera perspectives affect the perception an audience has of a speaker. To find this out they create a series of 7 test films in which each film adjusts the camera’s perspective on a speaker by a few degrees either above, below, or at the eye level of the speaker. They discovered no significant difference in the transfer of information between the different camera angles. They did, however discover a difference between the audience’s perception of the speaker depending on the camera angles. They also found that the perception was not a linear reaction to a higher or lower camera angle but rather reactions to specific camera angles. Extremes high or low resulted in the speaker seeming meeker, while a slight negative angle (-11.7) brought the most favorable ratings from the audience.

Kirrane, D. E. (September 1992). Visual learning. Training and Development, 58-63.

FirstSearch Abstract: How are society , work, and training influenced by an increasingly visual culture? What and how do we interpret and learn from images?

Abstract: This article describes a trend moving towards the visual and away from a textual based society "we are becoming less involved with print media and more involved with images—photos in magazines, videotapes, movies and so on…" The article offers a series of definitions of visual literacy from the International Visual Literacy Association and describes ways that we can train for visual literacy. There is a deficiency according to Kirrane in our ability to interpret visual messages and we need to become more proficient in our interpretations of them. He offers a number of examples describing what visuals are good for and describes some new tools and techniques available. He also lists some research on visual learning.

Lai, Y. R., & Waugh, M. L. (1995). Effects of three different hypertextual menu designs on various information searching activities. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(1), 25-52.

Author’s Abstract: This study examined the influence of flu-cc different combinations of document structures (hierarchical vs. network) and menu designs (explicit menus vs. embedded menus) on users' attitude, performance, and learning in search tasks of various specificity, complexity, and boundary. Three versions of an on-line document introducing UNDC, Internet, BITNET, and general computing and networking facilities and resources on a university campus were implemented using HyperCard. The three versions were explicit-hierarchy (ExH), explicit-network (ExN), and embedded-network (EmN). The results of the study showed that providing cross-reference links in small- or medium-sized on-line documents did not improve the efficiency of searching. However, search accuracy was enhanced when the search targets involved were either complex or vaguely specified. The combination of embedded menus and network structure (EmN) presents an interface unfamiliar to most information searchers and requires greater effort on their part to learn how to use and greater mental efforts to master. While initially EmN may not appeal as much to its users as ExN, as the user's experience develops and the complexity of the search task increases, EmN can support in depth searching strategies for tasks that are complex and vaguely specified.

Abstract: The variation between hierarchical and network document structures is not made clear in this article but the difference between explicit menus and embedded is much clearer. This article focussed on hypertext in its HyperCard format. It could be useful for information or links about menus and linking but it is a work in progress and the table showing the correlation between the hypothesis and the results shows this pretty clearly as none of the six hypothesis were shown to be significant.

Lang, A., Geiger, S., Strickwerda, M., & Sumner, J. (1993). The effects of related and unrelated cuts on television viewers’ attention, processing capacity, and memory. Communication Research, 20 (1), 4-29.

Library Abstract: This study tested the differential effects of two different types of cuts (related and unrelated) on attention, capacity, and audio and visual memory for the information contained in television messages. Related cuts were related by either visual or audio information. Unrelated cuts occurred between two completely unrelated scenes. Unrelated cuts were always associated with a change in content. Related scenes were never associated with a change in content. Results showed that both related and unrelated cuts resulted in cardiac orienting responses. Reaction times were slower immediately following unrelated cuts than when following related cuts, indicating that processing unrelated cuts required more capacity than processing related cuts. Memory was better for information presented after related cuts than it was for information presented after unrelated cuts. This effect was greater for visual memory than for audio memory. These results add to the growing body of knowledge on how people process television.

Abstract: The base hypothesis of this research is that certain elements of television cause a physiological response in humans termed the orienting response. This involuntary response is caused by a change in the environment or in the case of television a change in the audio/visual stimuli. Lang, Geiger, Strickwerda, and Sumner are testing the orienting response of television here. Specifically, if these responses are causing an overload in memory capacity. They present a number of hypotheses all relating to the discovering the orienting response and comparing retention rates of information directly following related and unrelated cuts. Essentially what they end up saying is that when used properly (related) editing devices can improve retention rates, and conversely decrease rates when used improperly. This research could help illustrate the value of animated backgrounds, buttons, banners, etc on TV and the Internet. They warn that too many orienting responses can overload our memory capacity for the information that follows. Still, advertisers would kill for an involuntary attention response.

Latham, A. S. (1997). Responding to cultural learning styles. Educational Leadership, 54 (7), 88-90.

Abstract: This article discusses the uses of a learning styles approach to dealing with culturally diverse students in both homogenous and heterogeneous classrooms. The article begins by describing the problem which is in essence that achievement gaps exist at nearly all age levels and in all subject areas for minority students. Latham uses research done on the Kamachamcha Early Education Project (KEEP) as an example of how an adaptation of teaching style can improve the success rates among minority students. This program was designed around native Hawaiians whose culture is traditionally collaborative and group-oriented. It showed that a learning styles approach could be successful.

Levenson, P. M., Morrow, J. R., & Signer, B. (1985-86). A comparison of noninteractive and interactive video instruction about smokeless tobacco. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 14 (3), 193-202.

Author’s Abstract: To compare learner cognitive and affective responses to a lesson on smokeless tobacco, 205 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a control or one of three experimental groups. Experimental groups viewed a videotape in the classroom or individually, or viewed an interactive video version of the lesson. They then completed a questionnaire to ascertain knowledge and attitudes about smokeless tobacco and lesson satisfaction. The interactive video group demonstrated the most accurate and comprehensive recall. While neither videotape group answered as many questions correctly as the interactive video group, the individual videotape group did better than the classroom videotape group and all experimental groups did better than the control group. Additionally, the interactive video group was more willing to promote cessation among users. Learner satisfaction with the interactive video equipment and lesson was high. The increased knowledge and motivation to act reported suggest opportunities for future uses of interactive video.

Abstract: This research was designed to compare a linear video presentation about the dangers of tobacco with an interactive multimedia using identical video footage. One difference (an important one) was that "at key points during the [interactive] lesson, the learner was asked questions and received feedback through computer-generated text and videotaped narrator comments. A questionnaire was constructed specifically for this study, but the details of how are sketchy in the article. They gave this questionnaire to four groups one with no instruction, two with only a linear videotape (one group received this individually and one group as a group), finally the last group watched the interactive multimedia. The findings showed that the interactive multimedia group had the most accurate and comprehensive recall, and that each instructed group did better than the control group with no instruction.

Matthews, D. B. (1991). The effects of learning style on grades of first-year college students. Research in Higher Education, 32 (3), 253-268.

Author’s Abstract: This study compared the grade point averages of 796 first-year students in five institutions of higher education in a southern state with learning typologies set forth in the Learning Styles Inventory by Canfield. Results of the analysis of variance reflected an effect of learning style, sex, and race. Grades of students with social, conceptual, and social/applied styles differed significantly from those of students having the neutral preference. Whites tended to have better grades than blacks had. Females learned best with social and independent/applied styles; however, males foamed best with social/applied and social/conceptual styles. Although there were no race differences in the proportions of students in the various learning styles, there were sex differences. Except for mathematics, the effect of major on the association of sex and learning style was moderate to none. Findings from the study suggest a need for administrative and instructional changes.

Matthews, D. B. (1996). An investigation of learning styles and perceived academic achievement for high school students. The Clearing House, 69 (4), 249-255.

Author’s Abstract: Research into the link between learning style and self-assessment of academic achievement among high school students showed that those who focused on deductive thinking had higher ratings than those who valued human interaction. This finding should provide the basis for a curricula that meets the needs of a variety of learning styles.

Abstract: This research used a large sample of 6,218 student to test the effectiveness of using Kolb’s (1985a) learning styles inventory. It was trying to discover how a student’s learning preferences affected their perceived academic achievement (SELF-RATING). They found that students’ learning styles had a significant relationship with their perceived academic achievement. Students who rated themselves the highest were from the convergers learning style category. This category is one in which knowledge is organized through hypothetical-deductive reasoning. In essence they can focus their attention on specific problems. Their strengths are ones that schools’ values. Ultimately this study supports the use of curricula that meets the needs of a variety of learning styles.

Mayer, R. E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more: meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88 (1), 64-73.

Author’s Abstract: In a series of 3 experiments, college students who read a summary that contained a sequence of short captions with simple illustrations depicting the main steps in the process of lightning recalled these steps and solved transfer problems as well as or better than students who received the full text along with the summary or the full text alone. In Experiment 2, taking away the illustrations or the captions eliminated the effectiveness of the summary. In Experiment 3, adding text to the summary reduced its effectiveness. Implications for a cognitive theory of multimedia learning are discussed; implications for instructional design pertain to the need for conciseness, coherence, and coordination in presenting scientific explanations.

Abstract: The researchers here are trying to determine the effectiveness of what they describe as a multimedia summary (a sequence of annotated illustrations depicting the steps in a process). They also test the individual components of their multimedia summary to evaluate each of the parts. The authors use a group of 56 students broken into 3 groups one receiving a 600-word passage alone, one receiving the same passage with a multimedia summary and one receiving just the summary. They also added text to the summary which contained 40 words to determine the effect of less concise text support in a summary. They found that the groups receiving the summary did 100% better than the group that received the text alone even the group that only saw the summary. They also found that adding text in the summary did not increase retention and adding too much actually decreased retention. The authors conclude that it is important when trying to illustrate scientific concepts that a lengthy verbal explanation is not the only way the information is presented. They also stress the importance of being concise, coherent, and corresponding with the subject matter when using multimedia summaries.

Najjar, L. J. (1996). Multimedia information and learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5 (2), 129-150.

Author’s Abstract: Multimedia is being used increasingly to provide computer based instruction. One reason for this trend may be the assumption that multimedia information helps people learn. To find out whether there is empirical support for this assumption this paper reviews studies from a wide variety of fields to show that multimedia may be able to help people learn more information more quickly compared to traditional classroom lecture. Redundant multimedia does not always improve learning compared to "monomedia." Specific situations in which multimedia information may help people to learn include (a) when the media encourage dual coding of information, (b)when the media support one another, and (c) when the media are presented to learners with low prior knowledge or aptitude in the domain being learned. There is empirical support for concluding that specific multimedia can be used to help people learn specific kinds of information.

This examination of a wide variety of empirical studies shows that multimedia information helps people learn-sometimes. Computer-based multimedia instruction may help people to learn more information in less time than traditional classroom lectures. This is especially the case when the computer-based multimedia instruction is interactive and learner-paced. The learning advantage for redundant multimedia over "monomedia" is not consistent. But this inconsistency is resolved when one takes into consideration the specific circumstances in which the media are presented. In particular, there is empirical support for concluding that multimedia information is most effective when:

1. It encourages the dual coding of information.
2. The media clearly support one another.

3. The media are presented to learners with low prior knowledge or aptitude in the domain being learned.

There is some empirical support for using specific multimedia to help people learn specific kinds of information. These advantages appear to be due to the ability of certain multimedia combinations to support the way people understand, organize, and access the information.

Abstract: Najjar presents a good overview of multimedia and learning research in this article. He found through a series of meta-analyses studying over 200 studies that compared the traditional classroom lecture to computer-based multimedia instruction that learning was higher when the information was presented via computer-based multimedia systems. He also discusses the importance of interactivity, learning pace, and novelty. Najjar covers 3 "situations in which multimedia helps people learn"—

1. When the media support dual coding of information
2. When the media support one another
3. When the media are presented to learners with low prior knowledge of aptitude in the domain being learned

Najjar also presents "empirically-supported suggestions for allocating media" such as using text and pictures for assembly instructions, a diagram and explanatory text to show procedural information, verbal narration for problem-solving information, pictures for recognizing information, illustrations for spatial information, sound for small amounts of verbal information, and video with a soundtrack for story details.

Ohl, T. M., & Cates, W. M. (November-December 1997). Applying metaphorical interface design principles to the world wide web. Educational Technology, 25-37.

Author’s Abstract: This article discusses sites on the World Wide Web and classifies them according to purpose. It examines metaphorical design and what it has to offer Website designers. The authors then detail how they applied the principles of metaphorical design to create a university Website. The article closes with a discussion of technological limitations that influence design decisions and consideration of when metaphorical design might be ill suited to a Website.

Abstract: This article walks you through the process of applying an appropriate metaphorical interface to a Web site, and shows you the results of just such an overhaul done on Lehigh University’s Educational Technology Web site. Ohl and Cates describe what a metaphorical interface is, how and why it works, why it is difficult to build, how to use cognitivism to support metaphorical design, choosing the right metaphor, implementing the metaphor, and design compromises.

Park, I., & Hannafin, M. (no date). Empirically-based guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41 (3), 63-85.

Author’s Abstract: While interest in interactive multimedia continues to grow, thus far its activities have been driven more by technological capacity than research and theory. Typically, guidelines for interactive multimedia design are based not upon empirical evidence, but on the intuitive beliefs of designers. In this article, relevant research and theory are organized within an overarching framework, and their principles and implications for the design of interactive multimedia are derived.

Since the concept of non-linear, random access to information was envisioned by Bush (1945), a host of beliefs has evolved. Interest in hypermedia, also characterized as interactive multimedia (Reeves & Harmon, 1991), has increased dramatically in recent years. Interactive multimedia dynamically link and manage organized nodes of information containing multiple symbol systems and images within a given medium or across different media. As extensions of hypertext and hypermedia, they provide user-directed, nonlinear methods for organizing and accessing information (Nelson, 1988; Tsai, 1989); support access to knowledge according to individual demands (Fiderio, 1988); permit direct access to individual elements contained in large databases (Marchionini, 1988; Seyer, 1989); and provide user-centered interactive environments.

Although interactive multimedia design is related to traditional and computer-aided learning systems, many of its aspects are arguably different from sequential media and computer-based instruction, as well as from hypertext (Kearsley, 1988). A great deal of relevant research and theory exists, but little has been extrapolated to the design of interactive multimedia. The purposes of this article are to derive principles from existing research and theory and to describe their implications for the design of interactive multimedia.

Abstract: This article does a good job of framing the theoretical approaches to designing interactive multimedia. It approaches the field from psychological, pedagogical and technological foundations. Park and Hannafin define what research exists in each of the three foundations, as well as defining what each foundation implies. They also offer a list of 20 common principles relating to interactive multimedia and give some background and definitions for each of the 20.

Park, O., & Hopkins, R. (1993). Instructional conditions for using dynamic visual displays: A review. Instructional Science, 21, 427-449.

A review of research related to the learning effect of dynamic versus static visual displays in media-based instruction is presented. The analysis reveals that the dynamic visual display (DVD) is generally more effective than the static visual display (SVD). However, the research findings do not consistently support the superior effect of DVDs. These conflicting findings seem to be related to the different theoretical rationales and methodological approaches used in various studies and suggest that the use of DVDs should be determined selectively. From the literature review and theoretical discussions about instructional functions of DVDs, we propose six instructional conditions under which DVDs can be effectively used. The conditions are for: (a) demonstrating sequential actions in a procedural task; (b) simulating causal models of complex system behaviors; (c) explicitly representing invisible system functions and behaviors; (d) illustrating a task which is difficult to describe verbally; (e) providing a visual analogy for an abstract and symbolic concept, and (f) obtaining attention focused on specific tasks or presentation displays. Finally, several important considerations for the design and presentation of DVDs are discussed.

Abstract: A literature review of dynamic vs. static displays in film/TV-based instruction as well as dynamic vs. static displays in computer-based instruction begins this article. Park & Hopkins found a number of inconsistencies in the literature they reviewed related to the effects of dynamic vs. static displays. The authors point to changes in the researchers’ conceptual approaches to dealing with dynamic visual displays (DVD J ). They include a large table summarizing the literature review highlighting the delivery medium used, the psychological paradigm associated with the research the type of task taught, and the significance of the effect. Park and Hopkins offer five instructional roles of DVDs and six instructional conditions for their use. Under roles things such as using DVDs: as attention guides, to represent action and movement, as an visual analogy for understanding abstract processes. Park & Hopkin’s 6 instructional conditions include using DVDs: to demonstrate sequential actions, for simulation of actions, and to focus attention.

Penny, S. (Ed.). (1995). Critical issues in electronic media. New York: State University of New York press. ISBN 0-7914-2318-2.

Perkins, D. N., Schwartz, J. L., West, M. M., & Wiske, M. S. (Eds.). (1995). Software goes to school: Teaching for understanding with new technologies. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508938-3.

Peterson, N.K., & Orde, B. J. (Feb, 1995). Implementing multimedia in the classroom: Pros, cons, and lessons learned. THE.

Abstract: This is a case study describing the implementation of multimedia in a Learning resource center. The article does a good job of describing the layout and equipment used. It is very specific as to the hardware and software that was utilized as well as providing images and layout plans of the room itself. In this school students in grades 6-9 were all required to utilize the multimedia facilities as well as regular classroom activities. Each student was required to use HyperCard plus a variety of software and hardware to complete their projects. Data was collected in three categories, student behavior, instructional materials and instructional management. Student behavior—Sound and multimedia applications generated lots of enthusiasm and at times made it difficult to control student movement and socializing. Some students were initially insecure about the technology. Also, the students were required to share limited resources, which made mouse operation an area of major contention. Instructional materials—Students quickly gave up on HyperCard stacks with too little multimedia (too much text). Also materials need to be carefully paced and set at the correct level of ability for the students or they have very little interest. Instructional management—excessive noise was a disruptive factor and the authors suggest the use of headphones. Two students at each workstation seemed to work best. Ergonomics need to be accounted for. Finally the systems themselves need to be protected from student "exploration". The authors give seven recommendations:

1. Formal instructional design process should be followed.
2. Formative evaluation is essential.
3. During the formative evaluation stage environmental concerns such as furniture, lighting and ambiance, should be considered along with instructional materials and methods.
4. Time on task and time for exploration should be considered.
5. Curriculum sequencing, which takes into consideration long- and short-range goals, facilitates daily lesson planning.
6. When team teaching, successful classroom and student management is primarily an issue of proper communication.
7. Hardware should be selected based on its ability to implement the curriculum and its applicability to the school environment.

Pisik, G. B. (July-August 1997). Is this course instructionally sound? A guide to evaluating online training courses. Educational Technology, 50-59.

Author’s Abstract: Evaluating training software to determine if it is instructionally sound is important and beneficial to companies and educational institutions. It should be done when considering the purchase of online training courses and when developing such courses. AT&T's Network Operations Education and Training (NOET) organization needed to evaluate multiple training packages for instructional soundness and created a form that could be used for that purpose. This article explains the development and use of that form as an instrument for evaluating online training courses.

Abstract: There isn’t much to add to the authors abstract as this article is essentially the form itself and the scoring instrument. It looks like a nice template for evaluating online training courses. The form has 68 items that are ranked no, somewhat, yes, or N/A, in categories representing content and instruction, learners, job transfer, design and packaging, and operation.

Quinlan, L. A. (May-June 1997). Creating a classroom kaleidoscope with the world wide web. Educational Technology, 15-22.

Abstract: This article is designed to assist K-12 instructors in bringing the World Wide Web into their classrooms. There is a list of 14 WWW resources for the K-12 educator to get started, a WWW glossary, a list of Internet search tools and even sample HTML code to get a very basic home page up and running. Quinlan describes the planning, construction, design, and potential problems educators might encounter with the Internet.

Reed, W. M., Ayersman, D. J., & Kraus, L. A. (1997). The effects of learning style and task type on hypermedia-based mental models. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 6(3/4), 285-304.

Author’s Abstract: This paper is based on a two-study line of inquiry. We investigated the effects of context-weak versus context-strong tasks and learning style on the citation-frequencies and citation-percentages of four mental models students perceived to be inherent in a hypermedia learning environment. The four mental models were (a) semantic networks, (b) concept maps, (c) frames/scripts, and (d) schemata. They were further grouped as linear (semantic network, frames/scripts) or nonlinear (concept maps, schemata). The difference between the two studies was that in Study I the research participants could cite as many of the four mentals as they chose for each of the target commands, features, or tools; in Study 2, they were limited to citing only one.

Findings include (a) the students cited more frames/scripts when the task context was strong than when it was weak (both studies); (b) they cited a higher percentage of schemata when the context was weak than when it was strong (both studies); and (c) that Convergers cited the most instances of schemata and Assimilators cited the fewest (both studies). Results are interpreted within the frameworks of linear versus nonlinear mental models, learning style differences, and user-based versus information-structure mental models.

Robinson, D. H., & Kiewra, K. A. (1995). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87 (3), 455-467.

Author’s Abstract: Most research on graphic organizers (i.e., figural organizations of text information) has failed to simulate actual classroom learning. Typically, studies have used short, poorly organized text, single graphic organizers, and immediate tests measuring only factual knowledge. Also, there is no convincing evidence that graphic organizers are better than outlines. Two experiments were conducted that represented attempts to address these problems in answering the question, "What types of text information do graphic organizers and outlines help college students learn?" Results revealed that when given enough time, students studying graphic organizers learned more hierarchical and coordinate relations, and as a result, they were more successful in applying that knowledge and in writing integrated essays than students studying outlines or text alone. These findings are discussed in terms of efficient indexing through visual argument.

Abstract: Robinson and Kiewra are attempting in this research to determine the effects of using graphic organizers as opposed to the standard outline on student learning. They tested their subjects on nonrepresented facts, represented facts, and hierarchical relations. They also gave the subjects an essay test as well as an application problem to solve. Groups either read a text alone, a text plus a standard outline, or a text with a graphic organizer. Questionnaires were given to the subjects (a convenience sample of 111 educational psychology students) to determine their reactions to the text, the outline, and the graphic organizer as well as their feelings about the time constraints, their personal effort and the level of interest of the information. Their research supported the use of graphic organizers over standard outlines provided the students have enough time to deal with the materials. One key factor in the use of graphic organizers was the ability to show relationships between elements which an outline does not allow.

Rouet, J. F., Levonen, J. J., Dillon, A., & Spiro, R. J. (Eds.). (1996). Hypertext and cognition. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2144-9.

Ergonomics or human factors approach—"A second approach is provided by the field of ergonomics or human factors (e.g., Dillon, 1994). Reading a hypertext can be seen as a situated interaction between a user and a complex device. Several characteristics of the user and the device influence the interaction between them. On the user side, parameters such as training, cognitive abilities, and expertise in the domain influence the way people use textual information. On the system side, many design options (e.g., quality of the display, number, shape and location of text windows, navigation tools, information structure) included in the hypertext can influence the reader's activity. Again, empirical studies are necessary to get a precise picture of these mutual influences for any given context of usage."

Schofield, J. W., Eurich-Fulcer, R., & Britt, C. L. (1994). Teachers, computer tutors, and teaching: The artificially intelligent tutor as an agent for classroom change. American Educational Research Journal, 31 (3), 579-607.

Author’s Abstract: This article documents, explores, and explains a paradox --that students who assert that a teacher provides better help than an artificially intelligent computer-based tutor nonetheless prefer using the tutor to learning in a more traditional manner and appear to learn more while doing so. An intensive qualitative study of eight classrooms using the tutors as well as control and comparison classrooms suggests three factors that account for this seeming inconsistency. First, rather than replacing the teacher, the tutor provided an additional resource for students. Second, using the tutors allowed teachers to provide more individualized help. Third, students using the tutors had more control over the kind and amount of help they received the teacher, with helping interactions become more private and potentially less embarrassing. None of these changes were envisioned by the tutor's developers, highlighting the importance of exploring the unintended effects of technology on classroom functioning.

Abstract: This study examined the use GPTutor a software package designed to help students with geometry proofs in a large urban high school over a two-year period. Researchers used "intensive qualitative classroom observations and repeated interviews with students and teachers as their data. Observations were made before, during, and after implementation of GPTutor. Eight classes using the software were observed and 5 classes that did not were observed as a control. The study found that the students prefer the teachers help to that offered by GPTutor, but also that they preferred a class using the software (see paradox in Authors Abstract). They also found that the teachers became more individualized because they had more time to spend on individual problems as the software released them from many of the typical questions/problems. Students also gained more control over the help they received because it was one on one and more private. Also faster students were able to keep their own pace and were not held back by the class as a whole.

Shih, Y., & Alessi, S. M. (1996). Effects of text versus voice on learning in multimedia courseware. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5 (2), 203-218.

Author’s introduction: An important variable in the design of multimedia courseware is the use of voice versus text in conveying verbal information. Voice is generally considered the more realistic and natural mode than displayed text. It also has assumed advantages such as being more easily comprehended by children or poor readers, does not-distract visual attention from stimuli such as diagrams, is more lifelike and therefore more engaging, and is good for conveying temporal information. In contrast, textual information has assumed advantages: it can be processed at the learners own rate, it is rehearsable, it is more efficiently stored and processed in a computer, and it is better for conveying spatial information.

This paper analyzes the relative advantages of text and voice and reports results of an experimental study. The experiment was a 3 (Group: Text vs. Voice vs. Text & Voice, between

subjects) x 2 (Type: Spatial vs. Temporal, within subjects) split-plot design that investigated the effects of presentation methods on learning and subjects' preferences. One hundred forty-one college students attended the experiment. No significant difference was found on learning. Eighty-two percent of subjects preferred Text &Voice to the two other methods.

Abstract: Shih and Alessi are comparing the effects of presenting using text alone, voice alone, and text and voice together to determine if they have different effects on learning, if they vary across different types of information (spatial vs. temporal), and what presentation method preferences learners have. They take into account elements of realism (fidelity), dual modality (dual coding), controllability, content characteristics, learner characteristics, and efficiency. They found that most of the students preferred the text and voice method (82%) despite the fact that the group exposed to text and voice did not do as well as the text alone group proving that in this case redundant audio can be a distraction and have a negative effect. They found no significance across different types of information.

Starr, R. M. (May-June 1997). Delivering instruction on the world wide web: Overview and basic design principles. Educational Technology, 7-14.

Author’s Introduction: Development of the Internet has started a revolution in communication that is providing new opportunities for delivering instruction. The Internet began as communication links among computer facilities and departments, accessible only to those comfortable with command line language. It became user-friendly with the development of hyperlinking on the World Wide Web (WWW, W3, or Web), enabling one document to contain pointers to and from many others. Web browsers were soon developed that supported display of high quality images, animation, videos, and audio. These graphical browsers opened the door to delivery of multimedia anywhere in the world. This paper presents a brief history of the Internet and the Web, describes benefits and disadvantages of the Web for instructional, programs, and provides some basic WWW design recommendations, along with basic technical information useful in instructional design for Web-Based Learning (WBL).

There is a need to dispel some of the confusion surrounding the terms Internet, the "Information Superhighway," and the World Wide Web. The Internet is an unorganized collection of networks that includes local area networks (LANs), dedicated computer lines, telephone lines, and satellite links. The Information Superhighway is a term popularized by the media, referring to the vast amount of data transmitted by the Internet and by telecommunications facilities in general. The World Wide Web is one of several services on the Internet, easily the most glamorous, and largely responsible for the tremendous increase in Internet users.

Abstract: This article begins with a great summary of the history of the Internet. It then moves into the advantages of using the Web for instructional design (hypertext, multimedia, interactivity, cross platform distribution) followed by the disadvantages (browser compatibility, difficult to control the interface, status line, internet transmission times. The article ends with a series of design considerations (learner analysis, setting analysis, internal resources, external resources, collaborations, web design features, development, updating and expansion, and evaluation). It also includes a glossary of common Web acronyms and terms.

Tergan, S. O. (1997). Misleading theoretical assumptions in hypertext/hypermedia research. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 6(3/4), 257-283.

Author’s Abstract: In this paper, the author outlines and critically reviews basic theoretical assumptions of research on learning with hypertext and hypermedia. The focus is on whether the results of research on hypertext/hypermedia-based learning support these assumptions. Results of empirical studies as well as a theoretical analysis reveal that many research approaches have been misled by inappropriate theoretical assumptions on the potential of structural and functional features of hypertext/hypermedia to support learning. Theoretical shortcomings of research are discussed. Suggestions for future research are outlined.

Abstract: This article essentially trashes all of the research done on multimedia. Stating that either the research does not support the assertions made or that the evidence is contradictory, or inadequate and therefore invalid.

Walters, R. (1995). Computer-mediated communications: Multimedia applications. Norwood, MA: Artech House, Inc. ISBN 0-89006-757-0.

Ward, D. R., & Tiessen, E. L. (September-October 1997). Adding educational value to the web: Active learning with AlivePages. Educational Technology, 22-31.

Author’s Abstract: With the introduction of new Internet technologies into classrooms, possibilities arise for developing new instructional approaches that: (1) take advantage of new technologies, and (2) are difficult to do without the technologies. In this article, the authors discuss an instructional approach referred to as collaborative project-based learning and describe a new Web-based technology which has been designed to specifically support this instructional approach.

Author’s Conclusion: In summary, the ALIVE! development builds innovative network applications on top of existing network technologies, in order to provide students and teachers with resource management tools, collaboration and coordination tools, and the means to add intellectual value to available information resources. As we research the use of this new Web-based environment, our goals are to: (1) develop and refine the instructional approach of collaborative project-based learning (and other instructional approaches) in order to take full educational advantage of networked technologies, and (2) develop a deeper understanding of the technical requirements for the design of Web-based software which supports collaborative project-based learning approaches.

Abstract: This article is almost a commercial for the AliVE project. It describes the benefits of collaborative project-based learning (information resources, communication, collaboration, project coordination). What this project is amounts to a server-side Web authoring tool. What that means is essentially you visit their Web site and follow the steps and the program running off the server (not your computer) will create a Web page for you. This is the basis for many free Web services today and can streamline the process for the novice especially.

Welsh, T. M. (1995). Simplifying hypermedia usage for learners: The effect of visual and manual filtering capabilities on efficiency, perceptions of usability, and performance. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(4), 275-304.

Author’s Abstract: This study investigated the effects of two hypermedia interface design strategies on learner efficiency, perceptions of usability, and performance. These effects were compared in relation to two tasks involved in reading to prepare for writing an essay-comprehending information and locating information. Findings support the use of manual and visual filtering tools in order to increase efficiency and perceptions of usability. While findings did not show that providing visual filtering and manual filtering tools results in better performance, it is suggested that future research explore the effects of thew features over time in more varied and extended tasks.

Abstract: This research was designed to discover whether or not a manual filtering interface can increase learner efficiency, perceptions of usability, and performance when using hypertext. Two types of filtering devices (visual, or non-visual) were also compared. This research was done using hypermedia (hypertext really). Student participants were given four tasks, training, comprehension task, information locating, and a usability assessment. Welsh has seven hypotheses but the crucial one, H7 performance scores will be higher when users have differentiated link types, was completely unsupported. The only hypotheses that was fully supported was that users with differentiated link types would access fewer annotations and spend more time reading those they did access.

Westendorp, P. (1996). Learning efficiency with text, pictures, and animation in on-line help. Journal of technical Writing and Communication, 26 (4), 401-417.

Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT 1996 Baywood Publishing Company Inc.

To test the relative efficiency and learning effect of text, pictures, and animation in on-line help systems, six versions of an on-line help system for telephones were designed. The operational information was presented in either text, pictures, or animation and presented either with or without spatial information (in pictures). Subjects were asked to perform thirteen tasks, using these six versions of the instructions and to do the same tasks again, using the same version of the instructions, one week later. The results show that only presenting the operational information via text is the most efficient. Subjects using instructions in animation needed significantly more time than those using the text or picture versions. Adding spatial information (in pictures) was counterproductive: without this information subjects performed better in all versions. Performing the same tasks with identical instructions one week later produced the same results, but the differences were much smaller. Therefore, it has been concluded that text remains the most efficient medium as long as users have to apply the instructions immediately. If the time needed to read/see the instructions is deducted, animation turns out to be the most efficient medium. It is therefore concluded that animation could be the best medium for learning how to operate a device.

Abstract: This research was created to test the effectiveness of a variety of approaches to online training. This research uses six variations of instruction—

1. Operational information in text and spatial information in (separate) pictures.
2. Operational information in text and no spatial information.
3. Operational information in pictures and spatial information in (separate) pictures.
4. Operational information in pictures and no spatial information.
5. Operational information in animation and spatial information in (separate) pictures.
6. Operational information in animation and no spatial information.

Westendorp found that presentation of operational information in text and no spatial information to be the most efficient method of providing online help and operational information in animation and spatial information in (separate) pictures to be the least efficient. However, if you deduct the time needed to see the instructions operational information in animation and no spatial information turns out to be the most efficient way to learn how to operate a device.

Wise, M., & Groom, F., M. (1996). The effects of enriching classroom learning with the systematic employment of multimedia. Education, 117, (1), 61-69.

Author’s Abstract: This exploratory field study asked K-12 teachers, students and administrators to give impressions of how educational outcomes differed after consistent, systematic use of a distributed voice, video and data transmission system in the classroom. Results showed observations of 12 variables including: attitude, retention, increased student and teacher enthusiasm, ability to transfer learning to other content, increased comfort with the use of technology and more effective teamwork and cooperation among students. This exploratory work will be followed by experimental investigation to see whether impressions are verified through actual student performance.

Abstract: Authors Wise and Groom present in this study an exploratory field study into the effects of technology in 2 school systems. Each school had audio/video and PC use in every classroom. One school set up in 1989 and the other in 1992. Wise and Groom send out a team of 8 graduate assistants to conduct qualitative research using structured and in-depth interviews. They spoke with students, teachers and administrators about their thoughts on the technology. The results could not confirm an increase in grades, but all members considered the use very positive. Teachers found that students were more attentive to video as opposed to lectures. Students found class more fun, and interesting. Administrators liked the ease of filing information and the telephones in each class allowing outside contact. This field study found that all involved thought that this was beneficial because both teachers and student had to work with the technology.

Yaverbaum, G. J., Kulkarni, M., & Wood, C. (1997). Multimedia projection: An exploratory study of student perceptions regarding interest, organization, and clarity. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 6(2), 139-153.

Author’s Abstract: Controversies about the impact of multimedia on learning proliferate throughout the literature. In spite of these controversies, increasing numbers of educators are considering ways to integrate technology into courseware, and they are especially concerned about how to practically approach the inclusion of multimedia. This study examines the views of students exposed to varied multimedia projections as part of the classroom experience. Asked to rank various screens, the students overwhelmingly support the integration of animation, music, and voice. They perceive screens to be better organized and clearer as these media are integrated with text and graphics. Additionally, they sense a heightened interest in the material being presented.

Abstract: This study used 78 students as its subjects to determine if the addition of animation, music, and/or voice would cause greater interest, perceived clarity, or perceived organization in multimedia instruction. The researchers used questionnaires to elicit subjective rankings of multimedia screens. All three correlations were found to be positive with the strongest correlations for organization and increased interest. The authors conclude "that technology offers a good solution to educational ills." But, they warn that learning objectives and good design principles are important as well.

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